Ceramic Studies | The Sissi Archaeological Project

Coordination; study of Neopalatial, Final Palatial and Postpalatial pottery: Charlotte Langohr
Study of Prepalatial and Protopalatial pottery: Ilaria Caloi
Study of cooking pottery and residue analysis: Jenny Tsafou
Study of Neopalatial pottery: Iro Mathioudaki
Study of Protopalatial pottery: Roxane Dubois
Petrographic, mineralogical, and elemental analyses of Neopalatial,

Final Palatial and Postpalatial pottery: Nikita Dauby
The settlement of Sissi is quite remarkable considering the quantity, quality and variety of ceramic assemblages that have thus far been excavated. At the close of thirteen archaeological campaigns (2007-2011; 2015-2019; 2022-2024), we have inventoried no less than 9996 units of ceramic sherds as well as catalogued so far 7022 individual pottery objects. These pottery assemblages are currently under study by different specialists, while the catalogued ceramic vessels are already fully conserved or are undergoing conservation, of which 3184 have been photographed and 2420 drawn. Particularly large assemblages of pottery found in primary or secondary contexts and in a good state of conservation cover a particularly extended time span of Minoan history, from the Early Minoan IIA phase to the very end of the LM IIIB phase, i.e. 2600-1200 BCE. The good progress made by the pottery conservation (see the section on materials conservation and management) and study campaigns allows us to propose a rather detailed reconstruction of the local ceramic sequence, which is summarized here below.

A. SISSI CERAMIC SEQUENCE

Prepalatial pottery

Early Minoan II

The earliest house tombs at Sissi date to the Early Minoan II phase. Very few pottery vessels were found in association with these burials but the settlement to which these Early Minoan II house-tombs belong has become more evident during the 2015-2016 campaigns. Indeed, in addition to EM II sherds associated with red clay floors within Building CD (top of the hill), extensive occupation layers with (disturbed) primary and secondary ceramic deposits related to this phase have come to light in the area of the later Neopalatial Court building on the east slope . In particular, the EM IIB pottery from a secondary, homogeneous deposit found in Room 11.1 includes mainly imported Vasiliki ware vessels (such as a teapot and some shallow bowls) and locally produced Mottled ware (deep and shallow bowls), which imitates the Vasiliki ware, as well as Cooking and Semi-coarse wares.

Fig. 1 Zone 11, to the north of the later court-centered building on the east slope, imported Vasiliki ware from the EM IIB homogeneous deposit of Room 11.1© Sissi Project

Early Minoan III/Middle Minoan IA

During the late Prepalatial period, plenty of activity went on in the cemetery . Several new tombs were constructed and reconstructed and the cemetery gradually extended to the western terraces. For example, the lower strata of compartment 9.1 has revealed a group of vases datable to EM III/MM IA that are associated with one of the several individuals buried in the room. The group includes two shallow bowls, one plain and one painted in red on the interior surface, one fragmentary two-handled spouted jar with incurving shoulder and one fragmentary jar decorated with a relief band.

Fig. 2 Zone 9, cemetery on the western terrace, EM III/MM IA pottery from Compartment 9.1© Sissi Project

EM III/MM IA pottery deposits within the settlement, which could allow us to link the funerary practices of the inhabitants of Sissi to their households, are still rare but do exist. They seem to be associated with structures on top of the hill that were cut through when the Neopalatial Building CD was constructed. This pottery is of very good quality.

Fig. 3 Top of the hill, open area south of Building CD, EM III/MM IA pottery deposit associated to some structures cut through by the construction of the Neopalatial Building CD © Sissi Project

Protopalatial pottery

Middle Minoan IB

The Middle Minoan IB phase, the first stage of the Protopalatial period, is still not very well understood in the region, neither at Sissi nor at nearby Malia. The only area at Sissi that has so far provided layers containing MM IB pottery is the cemetery. The MM IB phase is especially illustrated by funerary compartment 9.5, excavated in 2016, where MM IB vessels are represented by one-handled goblets, which seem to anticipate MM II products, as well as a teapot and a miniature tronconical cup.

Fig. 4 Zones 1/9, cemetery, MM IB pottery from house tombs © Sissi Project

Middle Minoan IIA-IIB

The Middle Minoan II phase can be subdivided into a MM IIA and a MM IIB sub-phase. Good amounts of MM IIA pottery have been found in the cemetery, both in compartments and external areas. In particular, during the MM II phase, open areas between the tombs were extensively used for some collective events that implied the consumption of food and drink, as suggested by the impressive and compact ceramic assemblages of broken MM IIA and MM IIB pottery collected outside the funerary structures. These mainly include small open shapes, but also some cooking (tripods, plates) and storing vessels (amphorae, ovoid wide-mouthed jars).

Fig. 5 Zone 9, MM IIA and MM IIB pottery from the external area © Sissi Project

The MM IIB phase is very well-known in the region, thanks to the excavations of an impressive series of monumental buildings at the neighbouring site of Malia, in particular Quartier Mu, which has produced evidence for an extensive MM IIB destruction (Poursat & Knappett 2005). At Sissi, MM IIB pottery is attested both in the settlement and in the cemetery.

Residential evidence related to MM IIB is still scattered, as mainly revealed by some isolated deposits and tests made in the different large and later buildings located on the top of the hill (Buildings CDE) and on the east slope (Building F). The remains of a MM IIB occupation horizon recognized in Building CD may correspond to the south extension of a substantial building for which better evidence may come from the area to the north of Building CD – zone 8. There georadar survey identified major alignments of walls and first excavation trials have provided MM II pottery (to be continued in 2017-2019).

Fig. 6 Building CD, Room 4.5, homogenous MM IIB deposit © Sissi Project

During MM IIB a major change occurred in the funerary area, with pithos burials inserted in pits being dug within the previous house-tomb cemetery. The pithos illustrated in Fig. 6, bearing both relief decoration on the base and black drippings on the body, finds good comparisons in the MM IIB destruction levels identified at Malia, especially in Quartier Mu and Building Dessenne.

Fig. 6 Zone 9, MM IIB pithos from the cemetery © Sissi Project

Residential evidence related to MM IIA and IIB is still scattered, as mainly revealed by some isolated deposits and tests made in the different large and later buildings located on the top of the hill (Buildings CDE), on the east slope (Building F), and in the area of the Court Building. Nevertheless, a comparative study of the MM IIA and IIB deposits collected in the settlement area makes it possible to better circumscribe each of the phases and, despite an apparent similarity with Malia (Quartier Mu, Bâtiment Dessenne, Secteur Pi) and important parallels with East Cretan traditions, to note specific features that are particular to Sissi (Dubois 2024).

Building HB in zone 8 (Fig. 7) produced a homogeneous secondary deposit dating from MM IIA. The clay is characteristically pinkish-light red, with a predominance of monochrome coarse to fine vessels. Particularly characteristic are: the carinated cup with very low, rounded carination, small-sized carinated cups with light-on-dark decoration, notably an external white wavy line, and fine sets of festoons or speckles on tumblers. The presence of shallow bowls with miniature cupules is also noteworthy.

The MM IIB phase is represented by several deposits: room 4.5 in Building CD, open area 5.10 to the north of building E, and room 8.20 in Building HB. The deposit in room 4.5 (Fig. 8) is secondary but includes a homogeneous assemblage, mostly made of undecorated tableware: tronconical cups, very rough squared cups, saucers. We note however a few fine monochrome carinated cups and a unique red teapot with a tubular spout, as well as cooking pottery and an incense burner. It worth noting that the classic tronconical cup decorated with light-on-dark festoons on the inside – characteristic at Malia in MM IIB- is very rare at Sissi.

Fig. 8 Building CD, Room 4.5, homogenous MM IIB deposit © Sissi Project

Neopalatial pottery

Middle Minoan IIIA-IIIB

The ongoing excavations and study of substantial MM III ceramic deposits at Sissi promise to shed some new light on the intermediate period which is Middle Minoan III, or the beginning of the New Palace period, which remains enigmatic, although current projects in different regions of the island have allowed a recent reappraisal of this issue (Macdonald & Knappett 2013, Intermezzo). At Sissi, the excavated contexts in question need further study but we think we can distinguish at least two different occupation horizons, Middle Minoan IIIA and Middle Minoan IIIB (Mathioudaki 2021). Eventually, it will be particularly interesting to compare our results with current works on the MM III assemblages and ceramic sequence at Malia, especially in Area Pi (Langohr, Pomadère, Alberti 2024) and in the Palace (Devolder, Caloi, Mathioudaki 2023).

A primary floor deposit comprising quite a variety of pottery that we attribute to a MM IIIA horizon was found in a test within the north-east sector of Building CD (Space 4.4). This varied repertoire shows evidence for continuity from the earlier local MM IIB assemblages, as indicated by similar fabric recipes and the consumption of similar shapes such as the coarse ledge-rim bowl or cups decorated with barbotine, but also important changes, such as a red slip and burnishing of some fine open and closed vessels, and the clear diminution of the MM II omnipresent straight-sided and carinated cups, which contrasts with the appearance of new shapes such as the ubiquitous plain handleless cup, or the perked-up, beaked jug.

Fig. 9 Building CD, N-E sector, space 4.4 © Sissi Project

Further evidence of a significant MM IIIA destruction has been identified within the Neopalatial Court Building on the eastern slope of the hill, represented by substantial ceramic deposits (Langohr 2021). These deposits await proper study.

Excavations in the area of the megalithic wall, located at the foot of the south slope of the hill has yielded an important MM III fill. This is a mixed assemblage, including earlier MM II sherds, but with a most possibly MM IIIB terminus post quem.

Fig. 10 Foot of the south slope, megalithic wall, MM III fill (MM IIIB terminus post quem) © Sissi Project

The MM IIIB ceramic horizon at Sissi is characterized by a series of what appears as structured deposits, mainly constituted of open drinking vessels. The first one was found in the open area located on the top of the hill, between Buildings CD and E (Devolder 2011, 158-159). A second one comes from what may have been a plastered bench in the east wing of the Court Building on the east slope of the hill (Caloi 2018). If the latter corresponds to a foundation deposit, MM IIIB may be the moment at which the complex was reconstructed after an important MM IIIA earthquake. A third very important deposit was excavated from Space 10.6 in the west wing of the Court Building. When the top layers of the deposit were excavated in 2015 and 2016, small quantities of Santorini ash were collected (Sissi IV: 275-279).

The excavation of 2017 revealed a roughly circular basin largely cut out of the limestone bedrock. A largely complete MM IIB amphora was found on the bottom of this basin and may well belong to the original function of the space as a water-collection or water-filtering device. At some later stage, the basin seems to have lost its original function and was used for the structured deposition of large quantities of broken ceramics, possibly in different episodes of filling, but those correspond to a very homogenous deposit, attributed to the MM IIIB phase (Mathioudaki 2021, 532 ff with a lot of illustrations).

These MM IIIB assemblages include quantities of plain handleless cups, made in various fabrics and characterized by various profiles, from tall and bell-shaped to large and conical, to compact and rim-inverted. Other types of drinking shapes, present in far more limited proportions, include ledge-rim cups, some with ripple decoration, straight-sided, convex and rounded cups, all with simple surface treatment, either dipped-decorated, or painted in light-on-dark or dark-on-light with bands and spirals.

Fig. 11 Open area between Buildings CD and E on the top of the hill, MM IIIB fill full of drinking vessels © Sissi Project

Fig. 12 East wing of the court-centred building on the east slope, MM IIIB fill full of drinking vessels© Sissi Project

Late Minoan IA-IB

On top of the MM IIIB deposit excavated from the circular Space 10.6 in the west wing of the Court Building (cf. above), we found considerable quantities of volcanic Santorini ash mixed with pottery sherds. The mendable vessels are few but some features distinguish this level from the MM IIIB ceramic horizon and point to the LM IA phase, perhaps to an early stage of the latter: the use of lighter fabrics (more buff than red), the first evidence for the typical (at Sissi and Malia) LM IA S-profile cup with a handle which is round in section, a greater homogeneity in the profiles of the handleless cups, which mostly tend towards a conical outline, although they most often show a large base and an everted shape which still differs from the narrow-based, compact and rim-inverted typical LM IA conical cups found in zone 2 (see below) but also by the thousands at LM IA Malia Pi.

Fig. 13 Zone 10, area south of the west wing of the court-centred complex, LM IA (mature) pottery mixed with volcanic Santorini ash © Sissi Project

LM IA ceramic assemblages from elsewhere on the site mainly come from the so-called industrial quartier in Zone 2, on the west slope of the hill. The repertoire is limited and very homogenous, in terms of paste recipes, shaping techniques and morphological types (Mathioudaki 2021, 544 ff).

Rooms 2.6 and 2.8 were found full of LM IA domestic pottery in secondary position, with no evidence for fire. There is a large proportion of mendable vessels, including conical cups, mainly with a small base and a more compact profile, S-profile cups with a handle round in section and a thumb impression on the underside of the base, plain or rim-dipped, tall convex cups with a handle round in section, plain or rim-dipped, tripod cooking pots and large basins with relief rope decoration.

Fig. 14 Zone 2, rooms 2.6 and 2.8, LM IA (mature) household assemblages in secondary deposition© Sissi Project

LM I deposits have also been excavated in different areas and trenches within Building CD on top of the hill, but further ceramic analysis is needed to allow us to distinguish the LM IA and LM IB deposits, since most of the fine ware is undecorated throughout LM I and an important continuity seem to characterise the repertoire of shapes and the technical practices (paste recipes and shaping techniques, with a majority of wheel-thrown small open shapes from LM IA onwards, in contrast with the still large proportion of wheel-fashioned cups in MM III) between these two phases. Among these different Neopalatial contexts, an extensive fire destruction deposit from a destroyed basement (room 4.19) has provided a substantial number of vases, mostly conical cups and, to a lesser extent, S-profile and tall convex cups, associated with burned seeds, a dozen very heavy and large melon-shaped loomweights, and a lentoid seal engraved with an agrimi . Besides the evocative contextual data, the preliminary analysis of the ceramic assemblage seems to indicate a LM IB horizon. Typo-stylistic features in favour of such a date concern the introduction of taller convex conical cups, of particularly large (rim D. 12 cm) and wide-based S-profile cups and maybe, of a strap handle for the regular S-profile cup (rim D. 8-9 cm). Otherwise, the seemingly LM IB local repertoire is much in continuity with LM IA traditions.

Fig. 15 Building CD, N-E sector, basement room 4.19, LM IB fire destruction deposit © Sissi Project

Final Palatial pottery

LM II-IIIA1

Important traces of LM II-IIIA1 occupation were uncovered on the top of the hill, in front of the south façade of the LM IIIB Building CD, which may indicate an earlier occupation horizon below the last floor levels of this main building (Langohr 2011, 193-195, fig. 8.12). Moreover, a large secondary deposit has been excavated within massive walls erected at the corner of a terrace facing the sea, to the north of the Building CD (Claeys 2021). This tower-like structure is currently interpreted as an LM II construction and suggests a rapid reoccupation of the site after the LM IB fire destruction.

These LM II-IIIA1 ceramic assemblages show much Knossian influence. Plain conical cups and small rounded cups in plain orange-red fabrics continue from LM IB local shapes, but the rest of the tableware is new, both in shapes and decoration. We observe LM II pattern-painted or slipped and burnished large goblets similar to FS 254 or FS 269 (average rim D. 14 cm), red-slipped and burnished short-stemmed kylikes with a short ledge-rim and one or two strap handles at the rim (average rim D. 10 cm), pattern-painted deep cups with a ledge-rim, amphoroid krater with octopus decoration and ladles. Moreover, the sharp tooled rims, the meticulous surface burnishing, the high firing are all entirely new production practices at the site (Langohr 2022).

Also dated to LM II or LM IIIA1 is a shaft grave (Driessen and Mouthuy 2022), inserted within an earlier Neopalatial funerary building located on the north-west slope. It contained the skeleton of a woman, accompanied by a bronze mirror, ornaments in ivory, and a necklace made of gold beads. Three small vessels were also found, a large conical cup, a small bowl with horizontal handles and a sharp ledge-rim, and a miniature handled pyxis, the last two with linear painted decoration (Langohr 2022).

The conical cup and the bowl are in continuation of LM IB local shapes (Langohr 2018, 315, fig. 6.2.10.a-f, o), but the sizes, and the forming and finishing techniques clearly differ from local Neopalatial practices.

Fig. 16 Open area between Buildings CD and E, LM IIIA1 secondary deposit found against the south façade of Building CD© Sissi Project

POST-PALATIAL POTTERY

Late Minoan IIIA2

The LM IIIA2 occupation at Sissi remains poorly documented. LM IIIA2 pottery is known primarily from a few stray finds, mainly repurposed as building material. This apparent hiatus in occupation and/or its lack of recognition require further investigation to be properly understood.

Late Minoan IIIB early

We have identified two distinct chronological horizons within the century-long LM IIIB phase of occupation of Building CD. In essence, several blocked internal doorways have urged us to consider a horizontal stratigraphy, with the distinction between rooms occupied in an earlier phase and then abandoned and blocked after a major destruction with all their material in situ, on the other hand, rooms cleared of their debris after this destruction and reoccupied in a latter phase.

The complex comprises a larger north wing (Building CD) and a smaller second wing (Building E) located to the south of an open area. The north wing is structured into two main zones, each organised around a large pillared room and separated by a corridor. The first occupation horizon is thus documented by primary destruction deposits found in the blocked rooms, which were not reoccupied after the destruction that struck the site at a middle stage of LM IIIB, probably related to an earthquake (Jusseret et alii 2013). The second horizon started with the reconstruction and reoccupation of a large part of the north wing, while the occupation of the south wing ended at the end of the first phase. The second occupation phase lasted until the very end of LM IIIB, when the building and the entire site are deserted.

In Building E, the LM IIIB early phase ended with a destruction by fire suggested by primary destruction deposits found in rooms 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13. The fine wares consist in a variety of drinking vessels including large open conical cups, footed cups, deep cups with a slight ledge-rim, a deep conical kylix, pulled-rim ogival bowls, but also a collar-necked jug. A macroscopic examination of vessels which were not over-fired suggests the use of a similar, semi-fine orange to brown fabric for the majority of the table wares except for the kylix, which is thrown in a fine light buff paste and decorated with a painted band at rim.

These drinking vessels seem then to constitute a homogenous group in terms of pastes, types and technology. Coarse plain wares include a flat-based cooking jar, and a snake-tube. The latter is provided with two ‘snake’ handles but also two pairs of vertically arranged short horizontal protuberances, which is an uncommon feature. Two other types of ‘snake’ and ‘snakeless’ tubes come from the LM IIIB advanced shrine 3.8 in Building CD. Finally coarse painted wares in Building E are represented by a transport stirrup jar and a bath-tub larnax.

The particular decoration of the transport stirrup jar deserves a few comments. Two elegant antithetic spirals developing above into two elaborate loops adorn both sides of the shoulder. At least two transport stirrup jars from Malia, one from Quartier Nu and a second from Quartier Epsilon (Deshayes & Dessenne 1959: 131, pl. XLVII:6, 8), and two others from the last palace at Knossos (Popham 1964: 13, pl. 3d-f; Haskell et alii 2011: 140, fig. 4, pl. 8, KN32-33) show a similar motive and decorative syntax at shoulder. LM IIIA2-B transport stirrup jars with a more complex painted decoration on shoulder than simple horizontal or undulating bands on the body seem to belong to Central rather than Western Cretan production centres (Haskell 2004: 155). The Knossos examples mentioned above are made in red clay, while the two stirrup jars from Sissi and Malia, Quartier Nu are in a semi-coarse buff fabric with numerous black and grey inclusions.

A first program of petrographical analysis conducted on Postpalatial pottery from Quartier Nu had identified this particular stirrup jar as belonging to a consistent production group from the ‘South Coast’ (Carl Knappett, unpublished study). However further research by Florence Liard (2018) on the same lot and additional petrographical samples from Quartier Nu, combined to a micro-regional geological survey along the north-eastern coast of Crete, has suggested a closer origin for, at least, some vessels of this petrographical group, and links it to the exploitation of clay sources in the area of Chersonissos, 7 km to the west of Malia.

Fig. 17 Building E, rooms 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13, LM IIIB early destruction deposits © Sissi Project

Fig. 18 a. Sissi, Building E, room 5.11. LM IIIB early transport stirrup jar (photo: C. Nikolakopoulos; drawing: H. Joris); b. Malia, Quartier Nu. LM IIIA2-B transport stirrup jar (J. Driessen) © Sissi Project

In the LM IIIB Building CD, a test beneath the floor of room 3.6 yielded an earlier deposit comprising a figurine, a kylix and an incomplete conical rhyton that seem to date to this earlier, LM IIIA2 occupation horizon of this extensive LM IIIB complex.

Fig. 18 Building CD, room 3.6, LM IIIA2 occupation horizon© Sissi Project

Two other well-circumscribed deposits from Building CD, Room 4.9 and Room 4.15, as well as the contents of Pit 87 excavated in the open area to the south of the complex, also belong to this LM IIIB early ceramic horizon at the site. They are illustrated below. Two major changes that characterized the LM IIIB early repertoire concern the use of buff fabrics, in addition to red ones, for similar, common shapes, including the footed cups, shallow bowls, kylikes and ogival bowls, but also amphorae and transport stirrup jars, and the arrival of several Mycenaean imports.

Late Minoan IIIB advanced

A major rebuilding episode took place at Sissi in LM IIIB advanced. The main complex is now concentrated in the north area of the hilltop, in Building CD, while Building E was abandoned. Important deposits of broken but complete LM IIIB ceramic vessels of various kinds have been found in several rooms. Although no stratigraphically consecutive LM IIIB layers have been identified, this late reoccupation is indicated by the discovery of several blocked doors of rooms that comprised abandonment deposits of the previous phase. The pottery deposits include several vessels for which the best parallels date to an advanced stage of LM IIIB – that is, in the second half and even a final stage of the 13th c. BCE. Moreover, these vessels often represent entirely new shapes at the site, as far as we can compare them with contexts currently linked to the previous LM IIIB phase. The floor deposits excavated in Rooms 3.3 and 3.8, with the latter being a shrine (Gaignerot-Driessen 2011: 89-92), are for example related to this LM IIIB advanced and last occupation horizon at Sissi, with a panel-patterned decorated krater, a cylinder-necked jug and a wide flat-based stirrup jar.

Fig. 22 Building CD, room 3.3. LM IIIB advanced reoccupation; panel-patterned decorated krater; cylinder-necked jug; large shallow bowl© Sissi Project

Fig. 23 Building CD, Room 3.8. LM IIIB advanced reoccupation; conical bowl; snake tube; snakeless tube; transport stirrup jar; non-local closed shape; non-local amphora; jug; wide flat-based stirrup jar © Sissi Project

Finally, room 3.6 is a special case. This room is mainly known for its impressive collection of 58 terracotta spools, hourglass-shaped loom weights generally considered as a typical production of the ‘Sea People’, here collected in what appears as one of the earliest contexts in the Aegean (see Building CD). These were found in two ‘nests’ in the central-north part of the room, just under the large fragments of two huge tripod cooking pots smashed on the floor. The fabric, profile, typological features and dimensions of the latter are quasi identical. Their profile and typological features are very comparable to examples from advanced LM IIIB sites such as Kalamafka (Aposelemis gorge) and from LM IIIC Kastrokephala (Kanta & Kontopodi 2011: 131, fig. 14b). These large containers were found next to finer shapes, such as a plain high-stemmed kylix, a monochrome footed cup, and a decorated miniature stirrup jar, as well as coarser vessels including a straight-sided pyxis decorated with linear bands in dark-on-light, a plain bell bowl, and a plain trefoil-mouthed narrow-necked jug with a wide base. The footed cup – although isolated – clearly differs in shape (much higher profile) and manufacture (fabric, shaping technique of the foot) from the examples found in the assemblages linked to the previous LM IIIB phase, as illustrated above.

The jug is a totally new shape at the site for which we are presently not able to provide any relevant parallels. The small stirrup jar has a solid false-spout which is a late feature on Crete. Indeed this technique by which handles and false spout are fashioned in one unit, joined in a second step to the body of the vase, is typical of the Mycenaean mainland, from LH IIIA2 onwards in some regions. At Khania, it appeared in LM IIIB2 (Hallager 2003: 216). The stirrup jar from room 3.6 is most probably an import from the Mainland, which seems to suggest a LH IIIB2 or LH IIIC Early date. As such, this vase may support a later stage in LM IIIB as a terminus ante quem for this deposit and the final abandonment of the site.

Fig. 24 Building CD, Room 3.6. LM IIIB advanced footed cup; bell bowl; wide flat-based trefoil-mouthed jug; pyxis; miniature stirrup jar; huge tripod cooking pots © Sissi Project

Eventually, it will be particularly interesting to compare this LM IIIB late ceramic horizon at Sissi with the earliest pottery assemblages collected in the framework of the survey and excavations programme conducted on the nearby reliefs of the Anavlochos (EFA excavations, dir. F. Gaignerot-Driessen).

Late Minoan IIIC and later material

Some isolated ceramic sherds found in the court area of the Ceremonial Building on the east slope suggest more or less limited later activities on the hill, later than the widespread desertion at the end of LM IIIB, such as a krater body fragment which looks LM IIIC, one or two pieces of Archaic and Hellenistic vases, and fragments of Late Antique or Early Byzantine vases.

Fig. 25 LM IIIC and latter isolated ceramic sherds found in the court area of the Ceremonial Building on the east slope© Sissi Project

B. Cooking Pottery and Residue Analysis

The research on cooking pottery from Sissi and residue analysis originated from the PhD (2023) of Dr Evgenia Tsafou entitled «The Function and Use of Cooking Vessels in Minoan Crete: an interdisciplinary study on ceramic assemblages from Sissi and Malia (Quartier Pi) during MMIIIA-LMIIIB (1750-1190 B.C.)». This research focuses on cooking practices and culinary traditions in Neopalatial to Postpalatial Minoan Crete (1750-1200 BCE) through a functional analysis applied to a wide range of ceramic cooking vessels. The study looks at first-hand data derived from the examination of cooking assemblages found in two Minoan settlements examined as case-studies: Sissi and Malia/Area Pi on the north-eastern coast of Crete. A significant aspect of the research project is the holistic approach taken in the study of the function and use of cooking vessels which is based on a combination of the following analytical methods: the morphological and technical features of the ceramic cooking repertoire were studied from a functional perspective, while use-wear analysis, organic residue studies, and contextual data were integrated to investigate the actual uses of the cooking vessels.

The main results of the study concern the identification of different aspects of the functional capacity and functional performance relating to cooking vessels of various types and shapes. Also, cooking vessels capable of performing wet and/or dry cooking methods were distinguished. Furthermore, aspects such as the cooking temperature, consistency of contents, and position of the vessel in relation to the heat source were clarified through the use-wear analysis.

The application of organic-residue analysis using two different analytical tools (microbotanical and molecular) identified a range of plant foodstuffs, animal fats as well as other natural products at the surface of the cooking vessels, which in combination with the other methods of analysis, shed new light on the contents and the uses of cooking vessels.

Finally, through the contextual analysis, a new definition was given to the different shapes which constituted a Minoan cooking set, i.e. the different vessels participating in the culinary sequence. Moreover, the identification of continuities and discontinuities in the different function(s) and use(s) of the Minoan cooking repertoire made it possible to better understand the culinary traditions in each of the two settlements and shed new light on the Minoan culinary culture(s) diachronically.

Fig. 26 Large-sized tripod cooking pot from Sissi, Building CD, Room 3.6. Results from starch grain and lipid analyses. Use traces on interior base and body (Photo. J. Tsafou) © Sissi Project

Further information on this research project can be found in the following works: Tsafou & Garcia-Granero 2021, Tsafou 2022; Roumpou & Tsafou 2023; Tsafou & Dubois 2024.

C. Programme of petrographic, mineralogical, and elemental analyses of Neopalatial, Final Palatial and Postpalatial pottery from Sissi

A good knowledge of the local ceramic sequence of the site has made it possible to draw up a programme of petrographic, mineralogical, and elemental analyses of the pottery of Sissi. This programme is at the core of a PhD research project carried out by Nikita Dauby and started in October 2024.

The site of Sissi displays impressive longevity of occupation (as illustrated by the local ceramic sequence presented above) as well as a diversity of simultaneous establishments (public, domestic, and funerary structures). Hence, the site of Sissi represents an ideal case study, for an approach that is both diachronic (Middle Minoan [MM] IIIA to Late Minoan [LM] IIIB – ca. 1700-1200 BCE) and synchronic (focus on LM IA) of pottery production traditions and of contexts of preferential use of the various production groups.

With a focus on the tableware, the project seeks to provide a better understanding of the organisation of the pottery production at the site during the Neopalatial, Final Palatial and Postpalatial periods. By approaching different stages of the chaine opératoire of ceramic manufacture through an interdisciplinary methodology, the aim is threefold: (1) to identify local and intra-regional ceramic production groups, (2) to assess the supply in ceramics at a site, and (3) to compare the contexts of preferential use of the various production groups identified.

A multi-scalar methodology is planned, progressing from the macroscopic analysis of the deposits to the microscopic analysis of the samples. Among the deposits already studied macroscopically (or currently being studied) (C. Langohr, I. Mathioudaki, N. Dauby), sampling will be carried out within the technical groups identified (according to paste recipes and/or macrotraces). Petrographic analysis, carried out under the supervision of Dr. E. Nodarou (William A. McDonald Laboratory of Ceramic Petrography at the INSTAP-SCEC), will then aim to confirm, refute or clarify the technical groups and paste recipes, by defining the matrix, the texture of the paste and identifying the mineral elements that are present. A final sampling will be made to carry out mineralogical (XRD – X-Ray Diffraction) and elemental (SEM/EDS – Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy) analyses. Conducted under the guidance of Prof. I. Iliopoulos (Minerals and Rocks Research Laboratory – KERAMos Research Group), these analyses will document the mineralogical and elemental composition of the ceramics, and by the presence or absence of specific minerals, the firing conditions of the ceramic assemblages selected.

Going beyond the usual typo-stylistic classifications based on macroscopic examination, especially in the case of fines wares, the application of a methodology that proceeds gradually from the identification of techno-petrographic groups to microstructural analysis would allow us to refine our understanding of pottery production and consumption organisation at the local scale.

All photographs by Chronis Nikolakopoulos (except when mentioned)

All drawings by Hannah Joris and Birgit Konnemann

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